Annual net primary productivity (NPP) of native plants and invasive Typha simulated over 45 years. Gray shading indicates the 3-year time period during which burning (a, d), mowing (b, e), or herbicide treatments (c, f) were applied. Wetlands received either 30 g N · m^–2 · y^–1 (panels a–c) or 4 g N · m^–2 · y^–1 (panels d–f). Note the difference in y-axis scales between left and right columns. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/elementa.147.f1