This article considers Bernard DeVoto’s defense of Frederick Jackson Turner’s influential essay, “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” (1893). DeVoto and other western historians championed Turner’s thesis celebrating westward expansion and Manifest Destiny at the same time that Julia Child was living in France, writing Mastering the Art of French Cooking (1961). While a group of heterosexual males were reviving Turner’s account of the US frontier experience in the mid–twentieth century, Child—along with a cohort of female collaborators and several gay men writing back home in the states—were positing a non-isolationist vision of America and a more cosmopolitan imaginary of its relations with other countries. They did so by writing about seemingly apolitical subjects, such as European cuisine and mixed alcoholic concoctions called “cocktails,” during World War II and the Cold War era.

“The destiny of nations depends on how they nourish themselves.”

—Jean Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, The Physiology of Taste (1825)

In 1951, western historian Bernard DeVoto published a magazine article in which he complained about poorly made kitchen utensils. As an example, he noted how stainless-steel knives were insufficiently sharp to cut the food prepared by American housewives. Several months later, he received a letter from Julia Child, who had read the article while living in France. Enclosed in her letter was a French paring knife made of carbon steel. Apologizing for DeVoto, who was too busy to acknowledge the gift, his wife Avis thanked Child on her husband’s behalf (Reardon 2010: 21–22).

DeVoto was a part-time instructor at Harvard who published a popular monthly column in Harper’s. He was also the most influential western historian of the mid–twentieth century. DeVoto was best known for writing a trilogy of books celebrating nineteenth-century westward expansion, as well as for editing The Journals of Lewis and Clark (1953). The scholar was an admirer of Frederick Jackson Turner, whose essay “The Significance of the Frontier in American History” (1893) chronicled the exploration and conquest of the US West. A believer in Manifest Destiny, Turner neglected to note its most harmful aspects, including the displacement and killing of indigenous people and the environmental devastation caused by ranchers, farmers, miners, and railroad companies. He also failed to recognize the contributions made by women, people of color, and other minorities, attributing the exploration and settlement of the region to Anglo-Saxon heterosexual males.

DeVoto’s support for Turner’s late nineteenth-century thesis coincided with the advent of World War II and lasted throughout the Cold War, during which period the United States sought to expand its sphere of influence in foreign countries.1 As Richard Slotkin notes in Gunfighter Nation: The Myth of the Frontier in the Twentieth Century (1992), in the late 1940s the United States began taking covert action to stop the spread of communism. The military engaged in a “secret war” to promote democracy in “the recently ‘liberated’ colonial empires of [its] allies,” which had begun “to break up in response to indigenous nationalist movements with revolutionary agendas.” The anti-communist slogan “Better dead than red” (Slotkin 1992: 349, 363–65) might just as well have summarized Turner’s thesis, which supported the nineteenth-century US invasion of native America.

Child worked for the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) during World War II. She was a research assistant in the Secret Intelligence sector who helped develop a repellent that prevented sharks from setting off underwater explosives and attacking pilots whose planes crashed in the Pacific Ocean. [Later, she jokingly referred to this chemical formula as her first “recipe” (Conant 2011: 61).] But Child wasn’t a political conservative like her father, John McWilliams, a wealthy contributor to the Republican Party and a supporter of Senator Joseph McCarthy (Conant 2011: 1–23). She and her husband, Paul, were less interested in the nation’s use of military force and espionage to promote its ideological agenda during and after the war and more interested in forging diplomatic relations among the United States and other countries through cultural means. After the war, the State Department assigned Paul to work in Paris as an exhibits officer at the United States Information Agency. The agency used painting, photography, film, and literature to introduce the French to aspects of American culture. At the same time, Julia pursued her study of classical French cuisine, which she later introduced to American consumers (Deutsch 2013).

Child once referred to her hometown of Pasadena, California, as “non-intellectual” (Child and Prud’homme 2006: 10). Yet it was also a western cultural hub: the birthplace of the Arroyo Seco Culture, which was inspired by Native American and Spanish Southwestern—as well as by foreign—influences. Members of this arts and crafts movement combined these influences with natural and regionally sourced materials in their modern homage to preindustrial civilization. Child grew up in a Craftsman-style home, popularized by local architects, who used wood and artisans’ tools to create open floor plans and exterior spaces to take advantage of southern California’s climate and casual lifestyle (Starr 1985: 99–127; Fitch 1997: 37). Pictures of her home display eaves that extend beyond the walls of the home, providing additional shade from the sun (inspired by Swiss chalets) and Japanese pagoda-like roofs. At the same time, the use of indigenous building materials helps the home blend in with its natural setting (Barragan 2018). In the first episode of the HBO Max series Julia (2022), an interior shot of the Childs’ later home in Cambridge, Massachusetts, appears to reflect aspects of the Craftsman style as well. The room has wood floors, ceilings, and walls, as well a Navajo rug hung near the telephone.

Like those who belonged to this movement, Child might be described as an artist and craftsperson; as a student who devoted herself to the “art” of French cooking, while simultaneously stressing the importance of technique in mastering her craft. She made every recipe from scratch, eschewing store-bought goods and ingredients. Throughout her life and career, she worked either in kitchens that lacked certain modern amenities or in kitchens designed and built by Paul, who had superb carpentry skills. They bore no resemblance to the contemporary work spaces preferred by American housewives, which were characterized by more efficient floor plans and gleaming modern appliances. Like DeVoto, Child complained about the quality of American knives, preferred gas stoves over electric ones, and in her first interview on WGBH made an omelet on a hot plate, which she kept in her purse, as seen in the first episode of Julia.

Child understood the impact of “wartime and postwar internationalism” on gourmet dining (Strauss 2011: 481). In the late 1950s and 1960s, France “underwent wrenching political change,” as wartime leader Charles deGaulle “retired from politics, the subsequent regime (the short-lived 4th Republic) attempted to oversee a crumbling empire,” and Algeria challenged the nation’s colonial rule. Relations with the United States were especially “fraught.” Although France had fought as America’s ally during the war, afterward it had contested the nation’s “geopolitical authority” in Europe, resisting a “U.S.-led NATO or indeed any U.S.-led international event” (Deutsch 2013).

“The unprecedented Euro-American collaboration that brought [Child] to Paris…through a Marshall Plan official” also shaped her future cookbook, co-authored by Louisette Bertholle and Simone Beck. “While Child and her partners toiled together in one another’s kitchens, American tourists flooded the continent; growing numbers of American scholars, soldiers, businessmen, and diplomats participated in a variety of projects with their European counterparts; and the American government promoted cultural exchanges through Fulbright scholarships and the funding of American libraries, lectures, and exhibitions in Europe” (Strauss 2011: 483).

Child believed that Americans could learn from other cultures and older civilizations, and that food was “a site that knit together a social order that appeared frayed everywhere else” (Deutsch 2013). During the Cold War, Child returned to the United States, sharing her newly acquired skills and “secret” recipes with American housewives (Reardon 2010: 57). She did so with the assistance of prominent gay American chefs and cultural taste-makers who wrote about food and drink from a cosmopolitan perspective, at a time when many historians remained advocates of American nationalism, both at home and abroad.

Bernard DeVoto was born and raised in Utah. His mother was the daughter of a Mormon farmer, and his father was the son of an impoverished Italian American immigrant. According to his biographer, western writer and close friend Wallace Stegner, DeVoto was shunned by both the Mormon and the gentile communities. Stegner noted: “Like many who fled the limited and puritanical village, [DeVoto] would not know until he had separated himself from it how much he knew about his home and how much he valued it” (6). Perhaps Stegner was thinking of Willa Cather, who had earlier moved from rural Nebraska to New York City, and then to Europe, only to return in her early novels to the frontier prairie, which she romanticized in O Pioneers! (1913) and My Ántonia (1918). “[B]eing literary in Ogden,” and feeling his “masculinity” in question, DeVoto transferred to Harvard after his first year at the University of Utah (Stegner 1974: 33, 24). Graduating after World War I, he initially taught at Northwestern, and then returned to his alma mater, where he remained on the faculty until the end of his academic career. In a letter to a friend, written in 1920, DeVoto described himself as a “spore [from] Utah, not adapted to the environment, a maverick who may not run with the herd, unbranded” (39). DeVoto acknowledged his alienation from his birthplace, while simultaneously dramatizing his frontier origins (“maverick,” “herd,” “unbranded”).

Earlier generations of eastern-educated men—including Francis Parkman Jr., Owen Wister, and Theodore Roosevelt—had traveled out West, testing their manhood in the “wilderness,” becoming ranchers, and participating in such activities as buffalo hunts (White 1968). DeVoto also enjoyed certain aspects of “the strenuous life,” spending one summer as an adolescent working on a sheep ranch in Idaho (Stegner 1974 1995: 43). But the East Coast intellectual returned to the West more frequently in his teaching and writing, reexploring the early US frontier.

As DeVoto began publishing historical scholarship on the nineteenth-century American West, American chefs and cookbook writers in the 1950s were promoting rustic western cuisine. James Beard had initiated the trend a decade earlier with his second book Cook It Outdoors (1941). That work was followed by a series of books in the 1950s: The Complete Book of Barbeque and Rotisserie Cooking (1954), The Complete Book of Outdoor Cookery (1954, with Helen Evans Brown), and Treasury of Outdoor Cooking, written in the late 1950s but published in 1960. In addition, Helen Evans Brown’s West Coast Cook Book (1952) featured dishes that had been eaten by early Spanish and Mexican settlers and white pioneers who had come to “the new country to dig gold, or build railroads, or seek adventure” (Brown 1952: 4). Conversely, The Virginia City Cook Book (1953) celebrated the Americanized European cuisine that had been eaten by silver-lode millionaires on the mining frontier. It is possible to read these works in opposition to the trend to modernize the American kitchen and to introduce more processed foods and microwavable precooked meals into the public’s diet. But in truth, the habit of combining manufactured food with wild game, homegrown fruits and vegetables, and natural herbs and spices began at least as early as Lewis and Clark. The explorers prepared for their lengthy journey by packing a keelboat with ninety-three pounds of “portable soup, a concoction that was boiled until gelatinous and then left to dry until hard.” Whenever possible, they also hunted for elk, deer, and bison, and traded goods with Native Americans, in exchange for roots and berries, wild licorice, and pemmican (Avey 2013; Mansfield 2002).

Not unlike Lewis and Clark, Child was a pioneer who introduced new foods and dishes to American palates—not in a rustic setting, but in non-modernized kitchens. Instead of mapping the early frontier, she rewrote the menu of food choices for domestic women in the mid–twentieth century, transforming the kitchen into a space both domestic and foreign, familiar yet experimental. No longer the site of domestic drudgery, the kitchen became a new frontier where amateur cooks could cultivate more sophisticated palates and cosmopolitan dishes.

In a letter to Avis, written in December 1952, Child asked DeVoto if his recent article in Harper’s was an excerpt from his forthcoming edition of Lewis and Clark. “It’s a period which fascinates Paul, and we both chewed into [it] with great satisfaction,” she enthuses (Reardon 2010: 58). Child imagined each new installment of the journals as a dish served by a master chef. In fact, The Journals of Lewis and Clark—like Mastering the Art of French Cooking—can be read as an instruction manual, featuring directions on how to navigate the early frontier, as well as recipes unfamiliar to most American readers. Journal entries contain measurements concerning longitude and latitude, distances traveled each day, and natural landmarks to follow as Lewis and Clark chart a course through the West. In addition, it lists the foodstuffs and cooking utensils exchanged with indigenous tribes in order to ensure their goodwill.

After the frontier “closed” in 1890 (Turner 1995: 6), President Theodore Roosevelt established an “Open Door Policy” (1899) allowing US missionaries to travel abroad, converting foreigners to Christianity, democracy, modern technological methods of farming, and various aspects of American culture. The establishment of trade relations between the United States and foreign countries sparked an interest in eastern Asian cuisine. Later, in reciprocal fashion, President John F. Kennedy and First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy introduced European cuisine at the White House, paving the way for Child, who during the President’s administration began appearing on public television, further heightening the public’s fascination with classical French cooking (Collins 2009: 3).

Beard also championed new methods of cooking that included both native or regional as well as foreign ingredients. The renowned chef was born in Portland, Oregon, in 1903, two years before the Lewis and Clark Exposition, a centennial fair celebrating the exploration of the early frontier. He combined such foods as Dungeness crab, caught off the Oregon coast, with recipes inspired by his British-born mother, who was taught how to cook by the family’s Chinese chef (Beard, Delights and Prejudices, 2010: 16). Beard blurred the line between highbrow and lowbrow cuisine. In The Complete Book of Outdoor Cookery, coauthored with Brown, he included a “grub list” that featured julienne vegetables and dishes set in aspic (303). The jacket copy for Cook It Outdoors proclaimed: “It is a man’s book…[that promotes] healthy outdoor eating and cooking habits” (7). But Beard was also a homosexual whose work reflected his queerness. Such men “used food as public expression,” creating dishes that combined “a matrix of color, feeling and pleasure, [and] the exuberance of intimate lives they couldn’t otherwise reveal to the world” (Birdsall 2020: 15).

During the Cold War, the United States sought to prevent the spread of communism by pursuing a policy of “containment” (Hamblen 2011: 45). Homosexuals were also considered social pariahs. “National strength depended upon the ability of strong, manly men to stand up against communist threats.…[S]exual excess or degeneracy would make individuals easy prey for communist tactics.” For homosexual males, the closet was much like the kitchen (May 2017: 82).

Essayist Richard Rodriguez suggests why gay men were attracted to aesthetic professions. At a time when homosexuality was considered “a sin against nature,” these men found refuge “in artifice, in plumage, in lampshades, sonnets, musical comedy, couture, syntax, religious ceremony, opera, lacquer, [and] irony.…We’ll put a little skirt here. The impulse is not to create but to re-create, to sham, to convert, to sauce, to rouge, to fragrance, to prettify. No effect is too small or too ephemeral to be snatched away from nature, to be ushered toward the perfection of artificiality. We’ll bring out the highlights there” (Rodriguez 1992: 32–33). Beard was drawn to nature but was also considered unnatural in the socially conservative mid–twentieth century. He was attracted to the fripperies of civilization—to outdoor cooking with julienne vegetables.

Lucius Beebe was also openly gay. He often appeared in public wearing a top hat and tails, advertising himself as a bon vivant who wrote about New York City café society. After Prohibition ended, he wrote a book about cocktails, emphasizing their foreign or exotic origins. The Stork Club Bar Book (2015 [1946]) featured cocktails with international ingredients—including Danish aquavit, Jamaican rum, London gin, Russian vodka, and French vermouth. They also had exotic names. The Bermudan, Cuban, and Panama cocktails, the London Fog, and the Scottish Loch Lomond vicariously enabled consumers to feel as if they were cosmopolitan travelers rather than conservative homebound Americans (Beebe 2015: 21, 23, 46). The Stork Club—patronized by celebrities and the Manhattan elite—represented “the dream of suburbia” (ibid., viii). Bartenders garnished their cocktails with Japanese umbrellas, maraschino cherries, and other sugary fruits, offering bright-colored confections in elegant glasses.

In The Hour: A Cocktail Manifesto (1948), DeVoto claimed there were only two kinds of American cocktails: the “slug” of bourbon and the vodka martini, which required merely a slice of lemon rind and a whiff of vermouth (11). His manly drinks (a “slug” of bourbon) contrasted Beebe’s more elaborate recipes, revealing “the trend of American life away from the countryside to the cities and the rise of mixed drinks, imported beverages, and a general alcoholic sophistication” (Beebe 2015: xxi). The American home was the new urban frontier, where a variety of cocktails—originally presented in the nation’s swankiest restaurants, night clubs, and bars (Beebe 2015: vii)—were consumed with increasing frequency.

Child took her job more seriously than Beebe, seeking to replicate (“to re-create”) the sauces that were essential parts of her recipes rather than fripperies (“to sauce, to rouge, to fragrance, to prettify”). But in other ways, like the flamboyant Beebe, she embodied the essence of camp. Standing more than six feet tall, with a less “feminine” physique than many of her female counterparts, yet speaking with a high-pitched voice, she reminds one of the characters in the second episode of Julia of “a man trying to sound like a woman.” Three episodes later, she meets her double—a San Francisco drag queen named CoCo Vin. Elsewhere on television, Child has been impersonated by male comedians such as Dan Ackroyd and John Candy. Julia also allows the viewer to speculate whether Child may have been lesbian. (At her Smith College reunion in episode four, a former classmate comes out to Child, revealing, “I changed after knowing you.”) Although the insinuations that Paul was also gay have never been proven, the couple was definitely “queer.” Julia and Paul had an unconventional marriage. In addition, the chef was larger than Paul. Whereas DeVoto was an advocate for nineteenth-century westward expansion, Child illustrated Turner’s belief that Americans were “an expanding people” (32). In Julie and Julia, when Paul comments on his wife’s talent for eating, Julia replies good-naturedly with her mouth full of food: “I know. I’m good at it. I’m growing in front of you!” While this critique of the female body may strike some as offensive, it also symbolizes Child’s growing ambition and expanding horizons, including her desire to bring French cuisine to the American people. Her union with Paul was equally unorthodox. Child had “no wish to give up her identity; what she was hoping to do was expand it to meet his, and then dissolve the borders” (Shapiro 2007: 58).

At times, Child is compared to a man. A pivotal scene in Julie and Julia occurs when she meets with her editor to determine the title of her forthcoming book. The title is a condensed version of the manuscript, featuring key words that indicate what the work is about. While the bewildered author watches, the editor moves the words around on a board until she discovers the ideal title. In Mastering the Art of French Cooking, three words are “key.” Art refers to a creative practice that requires natural talent, while Cooking suggests a practical skill that anyone can learn. (American chefs of Child’s generation often used the word “cooking” or “cookery” instead of “cuisine,” a foreign word with snobbish connotations.) Mastering means “acquiring an ability” or perfectly completing a task. As a gendered noun, master finds its complementary opposite in the word mistress. But as an action verb, it has no equivalent. (One can’t mistress the art of French cooking.) The editor engenders Child as a man, conquering a European form of cuisine, much as Lewis and Clark mapped the American West.

Child reclaimed a woman’s place in the kitchen during the political and sexual revolutions of the 1960s.2 Apocryphal stories claim that Betty Friedan once confronted the chef, accusing her of hurting the feminist cause by encouraging housewives to remain in their kitchens (Hollows 2007: 33–48). But there is no tangible evidence that Child did any such thing. In fact, one might argue that Child was a pioneer who infiltrated the male world of professional chefs, while transforming the domestic sphere into a realm of empowerment.

The Cold War sparked renewed interest in Turner’s thesis supporting US expansion. “Frontier mythologies coursed powerfully through this time period…, as they came into contact with innovative and explorative endeavors that sought to take ‘man’ beyond the plains of the American West.” During this period, the United States ventured into previously unexplored places—underwater, outer space, and anywhere else that could be “mastered and conquered.” Instead of appropriating territory, the United States sought to convert its ideological foes, crediting capitalism with America’s higher standard of living. For women, the kitchen became “The New Frontier,” a term Kennedy coined in a speech that he delivered at the Democratic National Convention in 1960. Food processors, new appliances, and more efficient, labor-saving devices were also examples of the nation’s higher standard of living (Squire 2011: 6; Rozwadowski 2018: 161–87; Hitt et al. 2008). A year earlier, Kennedy’s rival, Republican Vice President Richard Nixon, and Soviet Secretary Nikita Khrushchev had compared the merits of capitalism versus communism in the Kitchen Debate, a referendum on “living standards, political economy, culture, and consumer desires,” held at the American National Exhibition in Moscow (Hamilton and Phillips 2014: vii; Farish 2010: 45). The technologically sophisticated kitchen bore little resemblance to the work environment that Child preferred, featuring her husband’s hand-crafted cabinets and non-stainless-steel knives. Although later she embraced such liberal causes as Planned Parenthood and funding for HIV/AIDS (Kingston 2012), Child was as much of a politician as Nixon. She also had more in common with her father and her hometown of Pasadena than she may have realized. In the early twentieth century, Pasadena was known for its boosterism. Local politicians, civic leaders, business owners, and land developers like her father, John McWilliams, promoted the city’s temperate climate, its fertile soil, and its potential for economic growth in order to attract new residents, thus contributing to their own personal wealth. Child was a “booster” who lauded the virtues of classical French cuisine. The fact that she financially profited in the process of doing so was probably irrelevant to her purposes.

Child was a different kind of pioneer. Unlike DeVoto, who published androcentric narratives about western expansion, or Turner, who viewed the “frontier line” as a border separating civilization and savagery (31–34), Child defined the kitchen “frontier” as a liminal space of transformation and possibility; as a contact zone in which different cultures converged. In that sense, Child anticipated feminists of color—including Gloria Anzaldúa (Borderlands/La Frontera: The New Mestiza (1987) and the contributors to This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color (1983), edited by Anzaldúa and Cherrie Moraga. There were many differences between Child—a white, upper-middle-class chef—and these minority, working-class writers and political activists. Yet, like these women, Child redefined the “frontier” in the mid– to late twentieth century, transforming it from a site of conflict into one of creativity, collaboration, and female empowerment.

1.

Other “Turnerians” included Walter Prescott Webb (The Texas Rangers, 1965); R.W.B. Lewis (The American Adam: Innocence, Tragedy, and Tradition in the Nineteenth Century, 1955); Leo Marx (The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America, 1964); Edwin Fussell (Frontier: American Literature and the American West, 1965); and Henry Nash Smith (Virgin Land: The American West as Symbol and Myth, 1970).

2.

In “The Feminist and the Cook: Julia Child, Betty Friedan and Domestic Femininity,” Joanne Hollows argues that second-wave feminism rested on an opposition between private and public spheres…, [whereas] Child imagines ways of negotiating oppositions between ‘private/public, traditional/modern…[and] feminine/masculine.’” [In Emma Casey and Lydia Martens, eds., Gender and Consumption: Domestic Cultures and the Commercialization of Everyday Life (Hampshire, UK: Ashgate Publishing, 2007), 42.] However, Keenan Ferguson claims that “the domestication of French cookery held less allure than the authenticity of French cuisine.…The drama of Child’s cooking emerged from its ‘authentic’ French-ness: the difficulty of a well-browned sauce, for example, or the proper way to sauté a filet in the Parisian style.” (See Keenan Ferguson, “Mastering the Art of the Sensible: Julia Child, Nationalist,” in Theory and Event 12:2 [2009]). https://littlefoot/pubdata/Shipment/EDS%20Johns%20Hopkins/OA9/20090401/12.2.ferguson.html

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