Conservation of natural resources is challenging given the competing economic and ecological goals humans have for landscapes. Vernal pools in the northeastern US are seasonal, small wetlands that provide critical breeding habitat for amphibians and invertebrates adapted to temporary waters, and are exceptionally hard to conserve as their function is dependent on connections to other wetlands and upland forests. A team of researchers in Maine joined forces with a diverse array of governmental and private stakeholders to develop an alternative to existing top-down vernal pool regulation. Through creative adoption and revision of various resource management tools, they produced a vernal pool conservation mechanism, the Maine Vernal Pool Special Management Area Plan that meets the needs of diverse stakeholders from developers to ecologists. This voluntary mitigation tool uses fees from impacts to vernal pools in locally identified growth areas to fund conservation of “poolscapes” (pools plus appropriate adjacent habitat) in areas locally designated for rural use. In this case study, we identify six key features of this mechanism that illustrate the use of existing tools to balance growth and pool conservation. This case study will provide readers with key concepts that can be applied to any conservation problem: namely, how to work with diverse interests toward a common goal, how to evaluate and use existing policy tools in new ways, and how to approach solutions to sticky problems through a willingness to accept uncertainty and risk.

The invasive snakehead fish, which is native to Africa, Asia, Indonesia, and Malaysia, has been found in nine states in the United States and has notably developed a reproducing population in South Florida, Maryland, and Hawaii. This case study discusses the environmental impact and policies surrounding the snakehead fish population in the United States’ waters, as well as three other fishes (smallmouth bass, largemouth bass, and trout) that are native to some bodies of water in the United States, but non-native to others. This case study will examine the paradox that exists when the support of anglers and/or other important stakeholders in wildlife management does not match the potential a species has to damage a native habitat. Readers should be able to think critically about how people have come to define what is seemingly good for the environment based on personal human interest rather than environmental interest. They should also think about how easily the environment can be changed, even permanently, due to small cases of invasive species spreading rapidly from human practices.

Sharks play critical roles in the marine ecosystem, and they face serious threats due to overfishing. Conservation efforts have focused on the consumption of shark fins, especially the “finning” practice that removes the fins of a shark and discards the carcass at sea. This article reviews the shark fin legislation in the United States, including the “finning ban” which outlaws finning practices and the “fin ban” that prohibits the use of shark fins entirely. Our case study specifically focuses on the animal welfare, cultural, and policy debates surrounding these bans. We discuss how and why shark finning is regarded as a cruel practice and whether shark fin bans discriminate against Chinese Americans. At the policy level, there is an ongoing policy debate whether a ban on shark fins in the United States would lead to increased protection of sharks or it would have little effect on the global trade. Due to the lack of detailed information on shark fisheries, the policy discussion is likely to persist. Although this case study focuses only on regulations on shark fins, we would like to emphasize that shark fin industry is not the only threat to sharks. Conservationists also need to consider other issues such as bycatch, habitat destruction, and a wider array of policy tools to protect sharks.

Globally, mosquitoes have the propensity to severely impact public health by transmitting infectious agents that can lead to diseases, such as malaria, dengue fever, chikungunya, Zika fever, and West Nile fever. To develop appropriate control and mitigation measures for controlling the spread of mosquito-borne disease, we need to better understand ecological influences on mosquitoes, including competition, predation, and interactions with the environment. Building novel and environmentally conscious strategies has become increasingly important under the threat of potential range expansion with climate change and increased global connectivity. As a result of this case study and answering the corresponding questions, readers will be able to identify modern approaches to mosquito control based on an ecological understanding of these disease vectors. Readers will actively engage in scenarios where they will balance trade-offs between public health and environmental health, while considering the breadth of factors involved in global mosquito control efforts.

The migration of vegetation under the influence of climate change is of great interest to ecologists, but can be difficult to quantify—especially in less accessible landscapes. Monitoring land cover change through remote sensing has become the best solution, especially with the use of unmanned aerial systems (UASs; drones) as low-cost remote sensing platforms are able to collect data at high spatial and spectral resolutions. Unfortunately, in the context of climate change studies, the lack of comparative UAS data sets over decadal timescales has been limiting. Here, we describe a technique for the integration of historical, low spatial resolution satellite-based Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) data with short-term high-resolution multispectral UAS data to track the vegetation changes in a Costa Rican rainforest over a 33-year time frame. The study reveals the transition of a mixed forest from strongly deciduous to weakly deciduous phenology in the Hacienda Barú National Wildlife Refuge (HBNWR), southwestern Costa Rica. This case study presents an approach for researchers and forest managers to study and track vegetation changes over time in locations that lack detailed historical vegetation data. Vegetation migration due to climate change is not well documented and difficult to monitor, especially in remote or inaccessible locations. This case study presents researchers, students, and forest managers an approach for leveraging freely available satellite imagery and UASs to track these changes over time.

The island marble butterfly ( Euchloe ausonides insulanus ), thought to be extinct throughout the 20th century until re-discovered on a single remote island in Puget Sound in 1998, has become the focus of a concerted protection effort to prevent its extinction. However, efforts to “restore” island marble habitat conflict with efforts to “restore” the prairie ecosystem where it lives, because of the butterfly’s use of a non-native “weedy” host plant. Through a case study of the island marble project, we examine the practice of ecological restoration as the enactment of particular norms that define which species are understood to belong in the place being restored. We contextualize this case study within ongoing debates over the value of “native” species, indicative of deep-seated uncertainties and anxieties about the role of human intervention to alter or manage landscapes and ecosystems, in the time commonly described as the “Anthropocene.” We interpret the question of “what plants and animals belong in a particular place?” as not a question of scientific truth, but a value-laden construct of environmental management in practice, and we argue for deeper reflexivity on the part of environmental scientists and managers about the social values that inform ecological restoration.

Coos Bay, located on the southern Oregon Coast, is the largest estuary between the Columbia River and San Francisco Bay. Palouse and Larson Creeks in the northern section of Coos Bay are the two most productive streams for coho salmon. Such productivity occurs despite the pressure salmon habitats have experienced through a long history of anthropogenic alterations, and continue to face from the region’s robust industrial economy, including recreational and commercial fisheries, agricultural production, and forestry. Restoration efforts since the 1980s have helped mitigate environmental impacts, but the turn of the century brought a new era of coordinated research, monitoring, and restoration. Forming a multi-stakeholder partnership with the goal of restoring salmon runs, the local nonprofitnon-profit Coos Watershed Association and its partners worked together to learn about the strategies that coho use to survive in these altered landscapes and apply research findings to restore habitats. Specifically, they examined the most appropriate habitat restoration strategies for various life histories of coho salmon, while working within social and political constraints. As a result, these efforts over the past 35 years have led to a better understanding of salmon populations in Palouse and Larson Creeks and an effective restoration program that continues till today.

In Latin America, Pentecostal churches have an important presence in local Andean communities. I explored the opinions that rural people of the Pentecostal faith in the Peruvian Andes have on nature and conservation and tested the Evangelical principle of Creation Care as an effective method to approach them and get them interested in conservation issues. I attended special meetings of rural Pentecostal churches in Huanuco, Peru, in 2012 and 2013; the congregations allowed me to share the importance of nature conservation, and Creation Care facilitated this communication. I discuss the details of one of the events where I participated as an invited speaker to talk about nature conservation. For those who wish to foster a dialogue with Pentecostals and Evangelical residents of the Andes on the rationale for environmental stewardship, I recommend becoming familiar with the principle of Creation Care and looking for its application in specific environmental problems of the region.

Young people today spend relatively little time in natural environments, and this can lead to problems when they enter college degree programs in environmental studies or sciences. We designed a field course to reconnect undergraduates with nature through focused exercises in wilderness survival. This course integrates multiple learning domains, with a primary focus on the affective. In this case study, we narrate the story of one exercise deployed in this course, a night class in the forest, which has proven valuable for helping our students develop an affective connection with the natural surroundings. The success of the exercise hinges on careful choreography and the authenticity of the nighttime forest setting. Oral testimonies and written reflections following a daytime return visit reveal profound impacts on students, both in their awareness of the environment around them and their sense of connection to it. This article concludes with several questions to help faculty and students critically consider their own teaching and learning in environmental studies, as well as the potential applicability of these exercises in other academic situations.

The American black duck ( Anas rubripes ) population declined by 50% between 1955 and 1985, prompting more than three decades of intensive scientific research and strategic management. Analyses of band recovery data suggest that the historical declines may have been caused in part by harvest, but even with restrictive hunting regulations implemented in the mid 1980s, populations have not recovered. Increasing competition and hybridization with mallards ( Anas platyrhynchos ), coupled with habitat loss and fragmentation on northern breeding grounds are hypothesized to have contributed to a lower continental black duck population. Simultaneously, there is a concern that declines in the quantity and quality of wintering habitat—coastal salt marshes of the eastern United States—may have deleterious cross-seasonal effects on black duck demographics. Black ducks have a long legacy of intensive research and management, and ongoing threats to their populations make this a well-rooted and timely case study in science-based conservation.

Eld’s deer is an endangered species confined to dry forests of Southeast Asia. With the largest populations occurring in Myanmar, the Smithsonian Institution engaged the government and local organizations in conservation efforts. Nationwide, there has been a decline in both dry forest and deer distribution since the 1980s, despite the deer having national and international protected status. The deer persist in two national protected areas, Chatthin and Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuaries. From 1995 to 2005, the Smithsonian intensively upgraded facilities, staff capacity, and local education at Chatthin Wildlife Sanctuary and documented a marked rise in deer numbers. Following a 2005 pullout by the Smithsonian and a steep decline in international funds, deer populations at this reserve declined rapidly to below 1995 levels. This period coincided with a near complete loss of suitable habitat outside the reserve, repeated changes of reserve leadership, and emphasis on sustainable livelihoods for the surrounding communities rather than enforcement. At Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary, chronically low deer densities and lack of funding were dramatically reversed with the influx of military personnel around a new military base established inside the reserve. The military presence resulted in extensive forest clearing and was protested heavily by the Smithsonian and other international organizations as detrimental to the deer. However, the immediate response in Shwesettaw Wildlife Sanctuary has been an increase in deer numbers. Whether examining the “soft diplomacy” of public engagement and increased staff capacity or the “hard enforcement” by the military, both demonstrated that the species can respond rapidly to management actions; but the sustainability of these population responses without further government agency investment is uncertain.

Development of a utility-scale solar photovoltaic project involves management of various potential environmental impacts, including impacts on wildlife and habitat. Although solar facility construction activities do involve short-term disturbance, responsibly developed solar power plants can provide shelter, protection, and stable use of land to support biodiversity. Land use practices and their relationship to biodiversity are examined at one of the world’s largest solar facilities, the 550 MW Topaz Solar Farms project in San Luis Obispo County, CA, USA. Pre- and postconstruction biological monitoring data indicate similar to higher vegetation productivity on-site compared to reference sites. Postconstruction monitoring has documented the presence of dozens of wildlife species, including several with special conservation status. Best practices in responsible land use utilized in the Topaz project are specified in the categories of community, biology, water, design and construction, and end of life. These practices, as well as future solar project development innovations that reduce ground disturbance, can be applied to enhance biodiversity at other solar facilities.

The black-footed ferret ( Mustela nigripes ) is one of the rarest mammal species in North America. Captive breeding has prevented extinction of this species, but successful reintroduction of ferrets into their native grassland habitat is a complex endeavor. As specialist predators, ferrets depend almost exclusively on prairie dogs ( Cynomys spp.) for both food and shelter, so successful black-footed ferret reintroduction hinges on maintaining large colonies of prairie dogs. However, prairie dogs are also considered agricultural pests and are often subjected to eradication programs. These eradication programs hamper efforts to reintroduce ferrets and disrupt the valuable ecosystem services prairie dogs provide in their role as both keystone and foundation species. Even when agreements are reached to maintain prairie dog colonies, plague ( Yersinia pestis ), which infects both prairie dogs and ferrets, can threaten the success of a ferret reintroduction program. We describe the research on the complex ecological relationships and socio-environmental challenges of reintroducing endangered black-footed ferrets, with a focus on the most abundant prairie dog species, the black-tailed prairie dog ( Cynomys ludovicianus ).

Humanity has a miserable track record in conserving large carnivores: from Paleolithic hunters skinning the enormous cave lion 15,000 years ago to the contemporary loss of the marsupial Tasmanian tiger. Today, several iconic members of the order Carnivora are on the brink of extinction (Amur leopards, Asiatic cheetahs), and over 75% of the world's 31 large carnivore species have experienced alarming population declines, often directly from human persecution. Yet, several species of large predators have dramatically rebounded (European gray wolf, American black bear) in the most unlikely of places: heavily human-dominated landscapes. For example, the black bear population in northwestern New Jersey (NJ), the state with the highest human densities in the United States, has exponentially increased over sixfold in just 15 years. During this period of unprecedented suburban sprawl in NJ there have been over 26,500 reported human-bear interactions including seven attacks on humans and one human fatality. Given accelerating anthropogenic landscape transformation, there simply are not enough large tracts of wildlands remaining to alone support expanding bear populations. Thus, American black bear conservation in the Anthropocene may ultimately depend upon society's tolerance for this large carnivore in areas where people live, work, and recreate. In an effort to curb bear population growth and reduce conflicts, the first regulated NJ black bear harvest in over three decades was held in 2003 resulting in an acrimonious public debate. How can objective population ecology help us make informed decisions about management actions that elicit such strong emotional responses among different stakeholder groups?

The Bosque Protector Cerro Blanco (Cerro Blanco Protected Forest) is a 6,078 ha reserve that protects a significant remnant of dry tropical forest in Ecuador. Under Ecuadorian law one of the principal ways to protect private lands is to declare them as protected forests and vegetation. These areas for the most part do not receive funding from the government but their designation does provide some legal support when the inevitable conflicts in land use arise. Cerro Blanco, which was designated a protected forest in 1989 via government decree, is one of the earliest and also most consolidated of the protected forests. With support from the private sector, principally Holcim, which has a cement-producing plant in the forest buffer zone, Fundación Pro Bosque has set up a broad-based management program that includes control and vigilance, dry forest restoration, environmental education and interpretation, scientific investigation, and community development. This article provides a perspective of establishing protected areas in biodiverse areas facing many challenges, including rapid urban expansion, poorly regulated land use, and encroachment. The article includes some lessons learned that may be of use in attempting to establish protected areas in other places with similar challenges.

The Doñana Natural Space (National and Natural Park) has three dominant ecosystems: dunes, beaches, and marshes. Its geographical position gives rise to a rich biota at a major stopover point in birds’ migration routes and at a very important site for wintering waterfowl. Because of this, Doñana has acquired the highest protected area categories that a natural area can receive from international conservation organizations. Yet Doñana’s ability to support biodiversity is under constant threat due to its proximity to culturally and economically critical locations. The greatest external problems center on agriculture and tourism, which extract enormous amounts of groundwater which then alter hydrological dynamics. Excessive nutrients, roads, commercial navigation, pilgrimages, and several programed projects are additional pressures that could be aggravated by climate change. Inside the Space, overpopulations of domestic and wild ungulates, pathogens, and invasive species have changed its ecology. Doñana is managed by two operational programs implemented by a committee of 60 stakeholders. Both areas have been divided into conservation zones and very recently have been included in an extension of the old Biosphere Reserve with a Core Area (National Park), a Buffer Area (Natural Park), and a Transition Area. In the past 40 years, Doñana has received about US$900 million: this has increased not only conservation efforts in the area but also the economic level of local residents. Conflicts are lessening but pressures are mounting. More collaboration between administrations, more active local participation, more firmness concerning illegal activities, more expert technical advice, and more funding will be needed in the near future to preserve this unique natural heritage.

Historically, Hawaiian lands were divided into ahupua‘a , adjacent watersheds stretching from mountains to sea. While communities once farmed, cared for, and sustained a spiritual land ethic toward ahupua‘a holistically from mauka (mountainside) to makai (seaside), today many are no longer the clean and productive watersheds they once were as these traditional practices have fallen away. In He‘eia, an ahupua‘a on the island of O‘ahu, several nonprofit organizations are working to revitalize a cohesive ahupua‘a management system that can serve as a model for other ahupua‘a in Hawai‘i and around the Pacific, as well as serve as an example of holistic management practices in the twenty-first century. In the uplands, one organization works to restore the ahupua‘a’s stream by removing invasive plant species and replanting native flora. In the kula lands (flatlands), another group works to restore the wetland that filters inflow into the bay by planting kalo (taro) and revitalizing traditional Hawaiian polyculture. At the seashore, a third nonprofit is working to restore an 800-year-old fishpond with the intent to promote food security while conducting research on Hawaiian history and water quality. All three groups run extensive educational programs for locals and visitors of all ages and work to keep pollutants out of the watershed and stream as it flows downhill and out onto the reef. By weaving modern technologies, tools, and information together with stories, songs, and attitudes that embody deep and ancient ties between mankind and land, this creative and cooperative management is returning food security, sustainable culture, and resilience to the hands of the community.

Southern Australia has a tree crisis. The iconic and ecologically essential eucalypt trees are dying out across vast swathes of farmland that were once grassy woodlands. A century of clearing and agricultural intensification, plus the failure of these trees to self-regenerate, has led to a massive loss of wildlife habitat, particularly tree hollows that only form in large and old Eucalyptus trees. Just as importantly, this decline in trees has exposed farmers to losses of agricultural productivity. There is now a lack of shelter for livestock. Rising salty ground water is degrading pastures as this ground water is no longer being controlled by the deep roots and respiration of eucalypts. We describe the research that shows how an innovative partnership between farmers, a non-government environmental organisation, and government funding is rehabilitating entire fields to a productive and wildlife-rich woodland full of thriving eucalypts.