Russia’s “Asian pivot” remains focused on China, despite energetic Russian diplomacy in 2018 vis-à-vis Japan and India. The benefits of the enlargement of the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation to include Pakistan and India remained unclear, and the overlapping memberships of regional organizations highlighted the challenges for security and economic cooperation in Central Asia.

Since the annexation of Crimea in 2014, Russia’s “eastward pivot” has intensified, mainly observable as strengthened relations with China, which appear to be evolving into a quasi-alliance. This places in question Russian attempts at diversification in the Asia-Pacific, and its position in Central Asia, where China’s Belt and Road Initiative challenges Russian influence.